Week 8 Lecture on Procedure and Principle Learning

Procedure Learning

A Procedure is also known as an 'algorithm'. Procedure knowledge is "knowing how" The ability to state the steps in a procedure (i.e. Declarative Knowledge) is not sufficient evidence of Procedure Learning. Procedure Learning involves the ability to APPLY that procedure to a variety of previously unencountered situations, which is an intellectual skill.

But it is noteworthy that all procedures have a Declarative knowledge component in that learners need to possess knowledge of the steps. However, it does not seem necessary that this knowledge must be memorized by the learner before meaningful procedural learning can proceed.

What IS necessary before procedure learning can take place are the Concepts within the procedure that the learner MUST possess.

Productions which are the mental operations involved in applying Procedures take the form of "if-then" representations. Productions are implicit in all of the intellectual skills - concepts, procedures, principles and problem solving.

Generally, Procedures appear in this format:

"IF the situation contains distinguishing features A,B,C ,

THEN follow procedure P."

Procedures may be simple or complex. The following are characteristics of simple procedures:

• steps in a simple procedure do not vary
• there is only one set of steps and learner follows steps linearly (i.e. linear procedure)
• may be taught straightforwardly by presenting a step, demonstrate the step and allow learner to practise that step.

Characteristics of complex procedures are:

• have many decision points which lead to different branches through the procedure (i.e. branching procedure)
• Decision points are points in a procedure at which learner must make a classification of two or more situations (i.e. Concept Recognition)
• complex procedures must be simplified for initial instruction by teaching the following items first: (i) simplest or most common path through procedure; (ii) provide instruction on separate major branches i.e. teach one branch from beginning to end before moving to other branches; and (iii) simplified case that is a best example embodying critical characteristics

There are 4 sequences to Procedure Learning:

1. Recognize if the procedure is required in the situation
2. Complete the steps in the procedure
3. List the steps in the procedure
4. Check the appropriateness of completed procedure by estimating expected output

Principle Learning

Principles describe the relationship(s) among two or more concepts in the principle. Principle knowledge is "knowing why". Whereas Procedures involve procedural rules, Principles involve relational rules among concepts. These concepts are in the form of variables - factors that can have many values. The relationships among the variables are described in the form of "IF-THEN" or "CAUSE-EFFECT" relationships.

The cognitive processes of Principle Learning takes place as follows:

1. Prior knowledge of the Concepts represented in the principle because it is necessary to recognize the situation in which two or more concepts are related so that the Principle applies.
2. Generalization of the principles to more than the first context
3. Discrimination to recognize situations in which the principles does not apply
4. Declarative knowledge to state the relationship of the concepts
5. Determine which concepts have changed and the direction and magnitude of change
6. Determine effects of changes on other concepts

The application of a principle enables the learner to:

• PREDICT what will happen if one of the variables is changed
• EXPLAIN what has happened
• CONTROL the effects of variables upon each other

Similar to Procedure Learning, the ability to state the Principle (i.e. Declarative Knowledge) is not sufficient evidence of Principle Learning. Principle Learning involves the ability to APPLY that principle to a variety of previously unencountered situations, which is an intellectual skill.

And similar to Procedure Learning, Productions which are the mental operations involved in applying Principles take the form of "if-then" representations. Productions are implicit in all of the intellectual skills - concepts, procedures, principles and problem solving.

There are 4 sequences to Principle Learning:

1. State the Principle
2. Recognize if the Principle is applicable in the situation
3. Apply the Principle
4. Check whether the Principles has been correctly applied

This week's lecture will probably link to the following week's lecture because Principle Learning is central to Problem-Solving since learners must have a repertoire of principles that explain the relationships between critical concepts within the problem. Problem-Solving is thus the selection of appropriate principles to combine to solve a problem that requires application of several principles. So let's look forward the next week's lecture! =:oD