Week 9 Lecture on Problem-Solving and Affective Learning

Problem-Solving Learning

Problem-solving is the ability to combine previously learned principles, procedures, declarative knowledge and cognitive strategies in a unique way within a domain of content to solve previously unencountered problems.

This type of problem solving is domain specific because it emphasizes learning to utilize principles in a specific content area. Problem-solving differs from Principle Learning in that it requires the selection and combination of multiple principles to solve a problem rather than a single principle.

For a learning goal to be termed problem-solving, it must involve:

• simultaneous consideration of principles and procedures within a domain
  
• careful selection of principles that are applicable
  
• sequencing of the application of principles so that a problem is solved

To begin problem-solving, learners must first define the "problem space" which includes:

• given state (current situation with its restrictions and obstacles)


• intermediate state (that must be overcome to move from given state to goal state)


• goal state (desired end state of situation)

Problems can be simple or complex; well-structured or ill-structured. The differences between well-structured and ill-structured are documented in the lecture notes and thus will not be repeated here. But what I would like to highlight is that ill-structured prolbems generally are context-bound or perspective-dependent.

There are 4 cognitive processes for Problem-solving which will be documented below.

Problem Representation

The learner develops a representation of the problem by defining and decomposing the problem into subproblems. For well-defined problems, definition involves identifying the appropriate problem schema which are productions in the IF-THEN form; where IF represents the salient conditions fora particular class of problem and THEN represents the cognitive strategies and principles to support the solution of the problem.

Solution Planning

This requires searching, selecting, combining and sequencing relevant knowledge. Solution planning for well-defined problems is activated when an appropriate problem schema is engaged.

Solution Implementation

To apply multiple principles, learners must first know these principles i.e. identify situations where principles are applicable, apply the principles and check that the principles have been correctly applied.

Solution Evaluation

Cognitive processing is not complete until the learner has confirmed that his solution correctly or appropriately solves the problem. Confirmation for well-defined problems may be simple because the system itself provides feedback that the problem is solved. Whereas for ill-defined problems, it is more difficult and involves asking questions like "Does it produce an appropriate solution to the involved parties" or "Is the solution elegant ?"

In assessing Problem-solving Learning, one important component is to test the ability to isolate criterial attributes' goal and given states.

There are Macrostrategies for assisting Problem-solving Learning. The strategies are presented below in order where the least applicable to ill-structured problem is presented first and the most applicable last:

1. Socratic dialogue: interaction with an expert or mentor whose role is to provide instances and guiding questions.


2. Expert systems: computer-based program which, when given data, are able to solve problems within a limited domain if expertise. Expert systems consists of a knowledge database (composed of domain-specific declarative knowledge and principles) and inference engine (composed of generic and domain-specific strategies that determine how the knowledge base should be combined). Examples include: Intelligent Tutoring Systems, sequenced problem sets and building an expert system


3. Simulations: provide a problem situation through depiction of a system in operating form and require the learner to interact with the problem. With every action from the learner, there is a response within the simulation


4. Microworlds: whereas the central idea of simulations is the representation of a system, the central idea of a microworld is a learner centered construction. Microworlds offer assistance in providing a learning environment that is instrinsically motivating and cognitively challenging.
   
5. Webquests


6. Serious games


7. Anchored instruction: learning of a domain-specific problem solving based on situation cognition. Instruction is "anchored" if it provides a meaningful context and realistic, interesting problems for learners.


8. Case studies and case problems: something we are very familiar with


9. Problem-based learning: instruction that structures courses and entire curricula on problems rather than subject content.


10. Cognitive appreticeships: placing a learner in an authentic work environment as a partial participant. Whereas the emphasis in traditional apprenticeships is on phyical and motor skills, the emphasis in cognitive apprenticeships is on cognitive skills.

Affective Learning

Affective Learning usually involves the changing of an existing attitude or the formation of a new desirable attitude. Attitudes can be identified as desirable educational goals.

There are 3 components to Attitude Learning:

1. Cognitive component: "knowing how"
2. Affective component: "knowing why"
3. Behavioural component: practising or applying the attitude to engage in behaviour

The cognitive component in attitude change and formation can be embodied in the Krathwohl taxnomy (see figure below) which lists the different levels of learning:

• Receiving
• Responding
• Valuing
• Organization
• Characterization by a Value Complex

The elaboration for each level of learning is given in the lecture notes and need not be repeated here.

There are 3 instructional conditions for learning attitudes:

1. Demonstration of desired behaviour by a respected role model
2. Practice of desired behaviour through role-playing
3. Reinforcement for desired behaviour where a reinforcer is a stimulus that increases the likelihood of the preceding behaviour reoccurring
4. Other conditions: persuasive communications; cognitive dissonance; group discussions

Finally to conclude, 3 instruments - Direct Self-Report, Indirect Self-Report and Observation of learners' behaviours can be used to assess affective objectives. Whereas in direct and indirect self-report, the learner may provide answers to what they see as socially acceptable, the observation method is a more valid measure of how learners choose to perform.

Week 8 Lecture on Procedure and Principle Learning

Procedure Learning

A Procedure is also known as an 'algorithm'. Procedure knowledge is "knowing how" The ability to state the steps in a procedure (i.e. Declarative Knowledge) is not sufficient evidence of Procedure Learning. Procedure Learning involves the ability to APPLY that procedure to a variety of previously unencountered situations, which is an intellectual skill.

But it is noteworthy that all procedures have a Declarative knowledge component in that learners need to possess knowledge of the steps. However, it does not seem necessary that this knowledge must be memorized by the learner before meaningful procedural learning can proceed.

What IS necessary before procedure learning can take place are the Concepts within the procedure that the learner MUST possess.

Productions which are the mental operations involved in applying Procedures take the form of "if-then" representations. Productions are implicit in all of the intellectual skills - concepts, procedures, principles and problem solving.

Generally, Procedures appear in this format:

"IF the situation contains distinguishing features A,B,C ,

THEN follow procedure P."

Procedures may be simple or complex. The following are characteristics of simple procedures:

• steps in a simple procedure do not vary
• there is only one set of steps and learner follows steps linearly (i.e. linear procedure)
• may be taught straightforwardly by presenting a step, demonstrate the step and allow learner to practise that step.

Characteristics of complex procedures are:

• have many decision points which lead to different branches through the procedure (i.e. branching procedure)
• Decision points are points in a procedure at which learner must make a classification of two or more situations (i.e. Concept Recognition)
• complex procedures must be simplified for initial instruction by teaching the following items first: (i) simplest or most common path through procedure; (ii) provide instruction on separate major branches i.e. teach one branch from beginning to end before moving to other branches; and (iii) simplified case that is a best example embodying critical characteristics

There are 4 sequences to Procedure Learning:

1. Recognize if the procedure is required in the situation
2. Complete the steps in the procedure
3. List the steps in the procedure
4. Check the appropriateness of completed procedure by estimating expected output

Principle Learning

Principles describe the relationship(s) among two or more concepts in the principle. Principle knowledge is "knowing why". Whereas Procedures involve procedural rules, Principles involve relational rules among concepts. These concepts are in the form of variables - factors that can have many values. The relationships among the variables are described in the form of "IF-THEN" or "CAUSE-EFFECT" relationships.

The cognitive processes of Principle Learning takes place as follows:

1. Prior knowledge of the Concepts represented in the principle because it is necessary to recognize the situation in which two or more concepts are related so that the Principle applies.
2. Generalization of the principles to more than the first context
3. Discrimination to recognize situations in which the principles does not apply
4. Declarative knowledge to state the relationship of the concepts
5. Determine which concepts have changed and the direction and magnitude of change
6. Determine effects of changes on other concepts

The application of a principle enables the learner to:

• PREDICT what will happen if one of the variables is changed
• EXPLAIN what has happened
• CONTROL the effects of variables upon each other

Similar to Procedure Learning, the ability to state the Principle (i.e. Declarative Knowledge) is not sufficient evidence of Principle Learning. Principle Learning involves the ability to APPLY that principle to a variety of previously unencountered situations, which is an intellectual skill.

And similar to Procedure Learning, Productions which are the mental operations involved in applying Principles take the form of "if-then" representations. Productions are implicit in all of the intellectual skills - concepts, procedures, principles and problem solving.

There are 4 sequences to Principle Learning:

1. State the Principle
2. Recognize if the Principle is applicable in the situation
3. Apply the Principle
4. Check whether the Principles has been correctly applied

This week's lecture will probably link to the following week's lecture because Principle Learning is central to Problem-Solving since learners must have a repertoire of principles that explain the relationships between critical concepts within the problem. Problem-Solving is thus the selection of appropriate principles to combine to solve a problem that requires application of several principles. So let's look forward the next week's lecture! =:oD

Week 7 Lecture on Fact and Concept Learning

Instructional Strategies for i) Declarative Knowledge (Fact) and ii) Concept Learning are covered in this week's lecture.

Fact Learning (Declarative Knowledge)

Declarative knowledge, Fact and Verbal information are terms that can be used interchangably. Facts may be taught for its own sake or may be taught as a pre-requisite to other types of learning e.g. concept learning, procedural learning, psychomoter learning and problem-solving learning.

Facts involves "knowing that" something is the case. Fact Learning involves memorizing an association between two or more entities. There are 3 different categories of Fact Learning namely:

1. Labels and names: This involves pairing of information and requires the learner to mentally make a direct link between two elements. The learning of labels and names do not necessarily require learning the meaning of the two linked ideas, but rather learning that one thing links to another. However, being able to associate the item and its meaning facilitates easier learning. An example is the learning of a foreign language vocabulary.
2. Facts and lists: Fact - statement that describes a relationship between concepts. List - group of elements that must be remembered together. Facts and lists may be learned as individual facts or as networks of interconnected information. However, the more isolated the fact is, the more difficult it is to learn. Integrating facts with prior knowledge makes learning easier. An example of an isolated fact is the closing time of the library while an example of a list are the metal elements of the periodic table.
3. Organized discourse: This is an extensive body of information which may come in the form of a prose or essay. Learning is accomplished through reading an expository text, then interpreting the threads of meanings contained within. To facilitate easier learning, the discourse must be tied in to prior knowledge. An example is an academic journal.

There are 3 instructional strategies for Fact Learning and these are also the 3 critical cognitive activities that learners need to engage in when learning declarative knowledge.

1. Linking: Tying new facts to learner's prior knowledge. Information is meaningful when we have prior knowledge that links to it. The result of linking is the construction of meaning and preferably instrinsic meaning. Without prior knowledge to link to, learners have to employ artificial links, based on surface similarities OR resort to rote repetition.
2. Organizing: Chunking simplifies the cognitive load of handling and remembering large masses of data. Organization adds meaning by placing unfamiliar information into some existing "slot". Slots aid recall by being a beginning point for recall or limit activation of memory to a smaller area.
3. Elaborating: Achieved by filling in gaps, making inferences and imagining examples. Elaboration is a process by which links are made within the received information as well as for connecting the received information to prior knowledge. When learners receive new information, they add to it so that it makes sense and to make information more retrievable.

Concept Learning

Concept Learning involves "Knowing the meaning of ..." or "Knowing what ... is". It is a form of Intellectual Skill that involves applying knowledge across previously unencountered instances.

A concept is "a set of objects, events or symbols grouped together on the basis of shared characteristics and is referenced by a particular name of symbol". There are 2 kinds of concepts:

1. Concrete concept: Those which have physically perceivable characteristics which may be discerned by the physical senses like sight, smell, touch, taste, etc. An example is 'pulley'.
2. Abstract concept: Those which fit a particular definition and are not perceivable by their appearance. An example is 'profit'.

Furthermore, Concepts have 3 kinds of attributes namely:

1. Intrinsic attribute: invariant property of an observable thing or class of things that can be pointed to.
2. Functional attribute (a variable attribute): how something works and what its use might be.
3. Relational attribute (also a variable attribute): a quality a concept possesses defined in terms of something else.

The detailed steps for Fact and Concept Learning are found at the end of the summary for the reading and the elaboration for each step can be found in the reading itself. It is lengthy and thus shall not be repeated here.

So, having covered Declarative Knowledge and Concept Learning, I am looking forward to Procedural learning, Psychomoter learning and Problem-solving learning which will probably be introduced in the coming weeks.